ἱερεύς

Who is a priest?

The question has been answered different ways across Christian history. In Roman Catholic teaching, a priest is an ordained man who has received the sacrament of holy orders and is authorized to celebrate the sacrifice of the mass. In Orthodox teaching, a priest is similarly an ordained presbyter set apart for liturgical and sacramental ministry. In much of Protestant practice, the language of “priest” is largely avoided in favor of “pastor” or “minister.” In contemporary Roman Catholicism, the discussion of “shortage of priests” assumes that priests are a particular category of person, professionally credentialed for particular sacramental functions, distinct from the broader category of lay Christians.

The New Testament’s answer is different. Hiereus — the Greek word for priest — appears thirty-one times in the New Testament. In every single use, the word refers to one of three categories:

First, the Old Testament Aaronic priests — the descendants of Aaron who served at the tabernacle and temple. This use covers the gospel references to the Jewish priests and the Old Testament background.

Second, Christ Himself, named as the great High Priest who has entered the true sanctuary on behalf of His people. This use is the dominant New Testament theological development, especially in the letter to the Hebrews.

Third, all believers in Christ — named as priests through their union with Christ. This use appears in 1 Peter and Revelation, with substantial implications for the church’s identity.

What does not appear in the New Testament is the use of hiereus for a particular class of ordained Christian ministers distinct from the broader laity. The early church had bishops, elders, deacons, apostles, teachers — but the New Testament does not call these officeholders “priests.” The word hiereus is reserved for the Aaronic priesthood, for Christ, and for the whole people of God.

This chapter is about that word — hiereus — and about how the New Testament’s priesthood doctrine grounds one of the most distinctively Lutheran teachings: the priesthood of all believers. The chapter continues Part VI’s development of the New Testament’s vocabulary for the church and its ministry; the priesthood of the church is the worshiping and interceding identity of God’s people.

The Word

The Greek word is ἱερεύς (hiereus), pronounced in the Erasmian convention as hee-er-YOOS, with the accent on the second syllable. The word is a third-declension masculine noun and appears thirty-one times in the New Testament. The cognate compound archiereus (ἀρχιερεύς), “high priest” or “chief priest,” appears 122 times.

The etymology runs from the adjective hieros (ἱερός), “sacred” or “holy.” The basic meaning of hiereus is “one who is consecrated to sacred service” — the person set apart for service at the sanctuary, the temple, or the altar. The Greek classical and Hellenistic usage covered priests of various deities — Greek, Roman, mystery religion, civic cult. What unified the various uses was the structural relationship: the priest stood between the deity and the people, offering sacrifices, conducting rituals, mediating divine-human interaction.

The Greek word family is substantial:

Hieros (ἱερός) — sacred, holy. The base adjective. Used at 1 Corinthians 9:13 (those who serve at the altar share in the offerings), 2 Timothy 3:15 (the sacred writings).

Hiereus (ἱερεύς) — priest. The chapter’s main word.

Archiereus (ἀρχιερεύς) — high priest, chief priest. The compound with archē (chief, first). Used 122 times in the New Testament. In Hebrew context, refers to the high priest of Israel (singular) or the chief priests (plural — the priestly aristocracy). In Hebrews, the title for Christ as the supreme High Priest.

Hierateuma (ἱεράτευμα) — priesthood (the body of priests, the office). Used twice in the New Testament, both in 1 Peter 2:5 and 2:9. Names the corporate priesthood that all believers share.

Hierateuō (ἱερατεύω) — to serve as priest. Used once in the New Testament, at Luke 1:8 — Zechariah serving as priest in the temple.

Hierōsynē (ἱερωσύνη) — priesthood (the priestly office or function). Used three times, all in Hebrews 7. The Christological development.

Hieron (ἱερόν) — temple, sanctuary. Used over seventy times in the New Testament for the Jerusalem temple, where priestly service was conducted.

Hierateia (ἱερατεία) — priestly service. Used twice in the New Testament, at Luke 1:9 (Zechariah’s priestly service) and Hebrews 7:5 (the priestly office of the Levites).

Hierourgeō (ἱερουργέω) — to perform priestly service. Used once at Romans 15:16 — Paul describing his ministry as “serving as a priest” in the gospel of God.

The Septuagint background is foundational. The LXX uses hiereus consistently to translate Hebrew kohen (כֹּהֵן) — “priest” — the standard Hebrew word for the Aaronic and broader priestly category. The Hebrew tradition’s priestly vocabulary is substantial and theologically rich.

The Hebrew kohen tradition includes several key dimensions:

The Aaronic priesthood. Established at Sinai (Exodus 28-29) with Aaron and his sons consecrated to priestly service. The priesthood is hereditary — limited to Aaron’s descendants among the broader tribe of Levi. The priests conduct the sacrificial system, mediate covenant ritual, and serve in the holy place.

The high priesthood. One person at a time — Aaron, then his successors — serves as high priest. The high priest alone enters the Holy of Holies, once a year on the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), bearing the blood of the sin offering for the people. The high priesthood is the most concentrated form of the priestly mediation.

The Levitical service. The broader tribe of Levi serves as priests’ assistants — caring for the tabernacle/temple, leading musical worship, teaching the law, conducting various sacred functions short of the actual priestly sacrifice.

The kingdom of priests vision. Exodus 19:5-6 — God’s stated purpose for Israel: “you shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” The whole nation of Israel is called to be priestly — set apart as God’s representatives among the broader nations. This vision is partially realized in Israel’s history but fully realized in the new covenant where the priesthood of all believers becomes the church’s identity.

The priestly purpose. The priesthood exists for two-directional mediation. The priest brings God’s word and blessing to the people (Numbers 6:22-27, the Aaronic blessing). The priest brings the people’s sacrifices and prayers to God (Leviticus 1-7, the sacrificial system). The priesthood is the means by which the covenant relationship is maintained across the divine-human distinction.

Several Old Testament passages illuminate the New Testament’s development:

Exodus 19:5-6 — “If you will indeed obey my voice and keep my covenant, you shall be my treasured possession among all peoples, for all the earth is mine; and you shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” The vision that grounds 1 Peter 2:5, 9.

Genesis 14:18-20 — the appearance of Melchizedek, “priest of God Most High,” who blesses Abraham. This mysterious figure becomes important for Hebrews’s development of Christ’s priesthood after the order of Melchizedek.

Psalm 110:1-4 — “The LORD says to my Lord: ‘Sit at my right hand, until I make your enemies your footstool.’… The LORD has sworn and will not change his mind, ‘You are a priest forever after the order of Melchizedek.’” The messianic psalm that grounds Hebrews’s Christological development of priesthood.

Numbers 6:22-27 — the Aaronic blessing. “The LORD bless you and keep you; the LORD make his face to shine upon you and be gracious to you; the LORD lift up his countenance upon you and give you peace.” The priestly blessing that became the foundational liturgical blessing in Judaism and continues in Christian (especially Lutheran) liturgy.

Malachi 2:7 — “For the lips of a priest should guard knowledge, and people should seek instruction from his mouth, for he is the messenger of the LORD of hosts.” The priestly task of teaching God’s word.

The Hebrew priestly tradition is the foundation on which the New Testament’s hiereus doctrine builds — through Christ’s high priesthood, through the priesthood of all believers, and through the church’s continuing worship and intercession.

Range of Meaning

Hiereus in the New Testament covers three distinct uses:

The Aaronic / Old Testament priests. The historical Jewish priests during Christ’s earthly ministry and in the broader OT background. Matthew 8:4 (showing the cleansed leper to the priest), Mark 1:44, Luke 5:14 (the same Gospel pericope). Luke 1:5, 8 (Zechariah as a priest). Luke 17:14 (the ten lepers showing themselves to the priests). Acts 6:7 (a great many of the priests becoming obedient to the faith). Hebrews extensively for the Aaronic priesthood as background for Christ’s high priesthood.

Christ as the great High Priest. The dominant theological use, concentrated in Hebrews. Hebrews 5:6, 10 (after the order of Melchizedek). Hebrews 7:11-28 (the perfect priesthood). Hebrews 8:1-6 (the heavenly sanctuary). Hebrews 9:11-28 (the once-for-all sacrifice). Hebrews 10:11-22 (the perfected priestly work).

The believers as priests in Christ. The corporate priestly identity of the church. 1 Peter 2:5 (“a holy priesthood, to offer spiritual sacrifices”), 1 Peter 2:9 (“a royal priesthood”), Revelation 1:6 (“made us a kingdom, priests to his God and Father”), Revelation 5:10 (“made them a kingdom and priests”), Revelation 20:6 (“they will be priests of God and of Christ”).

The Pauline metaphorical use of priestly service. Romans 15:16 (Paul’s ministry as priestly service in the gospel), Philippians 2:17 (Paul’s possible death as a libation poured out on the sacrificial offering of the Philippians’ faith).

What is conspicuously absent: the use of hiereus for any particular class of Christian minister distinct from the rest of the believers. The New Testament has officers of the church — apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, teachers, elders, deacons — but none of them is called hiereus in distinction from the broader believing community. The category of “priest” applies to Christ and to the whole people of God.

Where You’ll Meet It

Hebrews 4:14-16. “Since then we have a great high priest who has passed through the heavens, Jesus, the Son of God, let us hold fast our confession. For we do not have a high priest who is unable to sympathize with our weaknesses, but one who in every respect has been tempted as we are, yet without sin. Let us then with confidence draw near to the throne of grace, that we may receive mercy and find grace to help in time of need.” The Greek of verse 14: echontes oun archierea megan.

The passage introduces the Hebrews’s central theological development of Christ’s high priesthood. Several observations matter.

First, the title. Archierea megan — “great high priest.” The Hebrew high priest entered the Holy of Holies once a year; Christ has passed through the heavens — entered the true sanctuary that the earthly one was a copy of. The qualification “great” distinguishes Christ from the merely Aaronic high priests.

Second, the sympathetic dimension. Sympathēsai tais astheneiais hēmōn — “sympathize with our weaknesses.” The high priest who has Himself been tempted in every respect (yet without sin) is positioned to sympathize with the believers’ weakness. This is one of the most pastorally rich texts in the New Testament. The believer approaches the throne not as approaching a distant or unsympathetic deity but as approaching the One who knows what it is to be human.

Third, the invitation. Proserchōmetha oun meta parrēsias tō thronō tēs charitos — “let us then with confidence draw near to the throne of grace.” The high priesthood of Christ grounds the believer’s confident approach to God. The believer does not approach in fear or in uncertainty; the believer approaches with confidence because of who the high priest is.

The Lutheran tradition has held this passage with particular pastoral weight. Christ’s high priesthood is the basis of the believer’s approach to God. The believer who is troubled by his sin, his weakness, his failure does not need additional priests or intermediaries; the believer has the great High Priest, Christ Himself, who continues to make intercession at the Father’s right hand. The throne of grace is accessible because of who sits before it.

Hebrews 7:23-28. “The former priests were many in number, because they were prevented by death from continuing in office, but he holds his priesthood permanently, because he continues forever. Consequently, he is able to save to the uttermost those who draw near to God through him, since he always lives to make intercession for them. For it was indeed fitting that we should have such a high priest, holy, innocent, unstained, separated from sinners, and exalted above the heavens. He has no need, like those high priests, to offer sacrifices daily, first for his own sins and then for those of the people, since he did this once for all when he offered up himself.” The Greek of verse 25: pantote zōn eis to entynchanein hyper autōn.

The passage develops Christ’s high priesthood in contrast to the Aaronic priesthood. Three observations matter.

First, the contrast with mortal priests. The Aaronic priests were many because they kept dying; the priesthood had to be passed on through generations. Christ holds His priesthood permanently because He continues forever. The eternal life of the risen Christ grounds the permanence of His priesthood.

Second, the continuing intercession. Pantote zōn eis to entynchanein hyper autōn — “always lives to make intercession for them.” Christ’s high priesthood is not finished; Christ continues to make intercession at the Father’s right hand. The believer’s salvation rests not only on Christ’s past work (the cross) but on Christ’s continuing work (the intercession).

Third, the once-for-all sacrifice. Ephapax (once for all) — Christ offered Himself as the sacrifice once, with no need for repetition. The Aaronic priests offered daily sacrifices that had to be continually repeated; Christ’s sacrifice was perfect and final. This contrast is foundational for the Lutheran rejection of the Roman Catholic doctrine of the sacrifice of the mass as a re-presentation of Christ’s sacrifice.

The Lutheran tradition has read these passages as the foundational basis for rejecting any continuing sacrificing priesthood in the church. The Aaronic sacrifices needed repetition because they could not finally take away sin; Christ’s sacrifice does not need repetition because it has finally accomplished what the Aaronic sacrifices only signified. The pastoral office in the Christian church is the ministry of Word and Sacrament — the proclamation of the gospel and the administration of the means by which Christ’s accomplished work reaches the believers. The pastoral office is not a sacrificing priesthood that offers Christ again or that adds to Christ’s sacrifice.

1 Peter 2:4-9. “As you come to him, a living stone rejected by men but in the sight of God chosen and precious, you yourselves like living stones are being built up as a spiritual house, to be a holy priesthood, to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ… But you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for his own possession, that you may proclaim the excellencies of him who called you out of darkness into his marvelous light.” The Greek of verses 5 and 9: hierateuma hagion, anenenkai pneumatikas thysias euprosdektous tō theō dia Iēsou Christou… basileion hierateuma.

The passage is the foundational New Testament text for the priesthood of all believers. Several observations matter.

First, the corporate identity. Peter is addressing the believers collectively. The “you” is plural. The priesthood is not an individual achievement; the priesthood is the corporate identity of God’s people. The whole church is the priesthood; each believer is a priest as part of the church’s corporate identity.

Second, the connection to the Exodus 19 vision. Basileion hierateuma, ethnos hagion — “royal priesthood, holy nation.” The Old Testament categories for Israel (Exodus 19:5-6) are applied to the New Testament church. The vision of God’s people as a kingdom of priests, deferred and partially realized in the Old Testament, is now fulfilled in the church Christ has gathered.

Third, the priestly function. Anenenkai pneumatikas thysias euprosdektous tō theō — “to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God.” The priesthood of all believers involves offering. What is offered is not Christ Himself (His sacrifice was once-for-all); what is offered are spiritual sacrifices — prayers, praises, lives offered to God, witness, the believer’s whole existence presented to God in worship (Romans 12:1).

Fourth, the Christological mediation. Dia Iēsou Christou — “through Jesus Christ.” The believer’s priestly offering is acceptable to God through Christ. The believer is not approaching God on his own merit; the believer is approaching God through the Great High Priest whose own sacrifice has secured the access. The priesthood of all believers is grounded in Christ’s high priesthood.

The Lutheran Reformation recovered this doctrine with substantial force. Luther’s 1520 treatise To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation developed the priesthood of all believers as one of the foundational Reformation insights. The medieval Roman Catholic system had developed a distinction between clergy (priests in the sacrificing sense) and laity (the rest of the Christians) that elevated the clergy as a higher spiritual class. The Reformation insisted that all baptized believers are priests; the ordained pastoral office is real and necessary but does not create a higher class of Christians.

Revelation 1:5-6. “To him who loves us and has freed us from our sins by his blood and made us a kingdom, priests to his God and Father, to him be glory and dominion forever and ever. Amen.” The Greek of verse 6: epoiēsen hēmas basileian, hiereis tō theō kai patri autou.

The verse from Revelation’s opening salutation establishes the priestly identity of the believers as already accomplished. Epoiēsen — “he made” — is aorist; the action is completed. The believers are already a kingdom, already priests. The priesthood is not a future status to be attained but a present identity given by Christ’s redemptive work.

The combination of kingdom and priests picks up the Exodus 19:6 vision. The believers in Christ are now what Israel was called to be — a kingdom of priests. The priesthood is corporate and individual at once: corporately, the church is the kingdom of priests; individually, each believer is one of the priests within the corporate body.

Romans 12:1. “I appeal to you therefore, brothers, by the mercies of God, to present your bodies as a living sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God, which is your spiritual worship.” The Greek: parastēsai ta sōmata hymōn thysian zōsan hagian euareston tō theō, tēn logikēn latreian hymōn.

The verse develops the priestly identity of the believer in terms of self-offering. Thysian zōsan — “a living sacrifice.” The believer’s body is to be presented as the offering; the priestly work is the offering of self to God. Latreia (service, worship) names this self-offering as the believer’s reasonable or spiritual latreia — the liturgical service the believer is to render.

The verse integrates the priestly identity with the believer’s daily life. The believer’s priestly work is not just in formal liturgical settings; the believer’s priestly work is the whole life presented to God. The body — the believer’s physical, social, vocational, relational existence — is the offering. The whole life is the latreia.

The Lutheran tradition has held this verse in connection with the priesthood of all believers. The priestly work of the believer extends to all of life. The Sunday worship is one dimension; the family life, the work life, the community life are all dimensions of the same priestly offering. The believer is a priest at all times and in all places, offering his whole life as a living sacrifice to the God who has called him.