ἀπόστολος

Chapter 26 of this volume treated the New Testament word for disciple — mathētēs — the believer’s identity as one being taught by Christ. Disciples are pupils, students, learners. Throughout the Gospels, the Twelve are consistently called mathētai. They follow Jesus; they listen to His teaching; they ask Him questions when they do not understand; they fail and are restored; they are being formed by the One whose pupils they have become.

Then, after the resurrection, the same Twelve receive a new designation. They are no longer just mathētai. They are apostoloi — apostles, ones sent. The risen Christ commissions them: “As the Father has sent me, even so I am sending you” (John 20:21). What had been a relationship of being-taught becomes also a relationship of being-sent. The pupil becomes the messenger. The student becomes the foundation of the church the Master is building.

The transformation is theologically substantial. The same men whose Gospels record their failures (sleeping in Gethsemane, denying their Master, fleeing at the arrest) become the men whose names will be inscribed on the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Revelation 21:14). The forming work the Master did during His earthly ministry produces the sent ones who carry His teaching and authority into the world. The discipleship continued, but the discipleship was now ordered toward apostleship.

This chapter is about that word — apostolos — and the chapter opens Part VI of this volume, which treats the New Testament’s vocabulary for the church and its ministry. Part V developed the Spirit’s work in the individual believer; Part VI turns to the Spirit’s work in the community Christ established.

The Word

The Greek word is ἀπόστολος (apostolos), pronounced in the Erasmian convention as a-POS-to-los, with the accent on the second syllable. The word is a second-declension masculine noun and appears about eighty times in the New Testament. The cognate verb apostellō (ἀποστέλλω), “to send forth,” appears 132 times. The English word apostle is a direct transliteration of the Greek.

The etymology is a compound. Apo- (ἀπό) is the Greek preposition meaning “from,” “away from,” “out of.” Stellō (στέλλω) is the Greek verb for “to send” or “to set in motion.” The compound verb apostellō names sending with the dimension of being sent from somewhere or someone. The noun apostolos names the agent of the sending — the one who has been sent.

The conceptual structure is significant. Apostolos is not just “messenger” in a generic sense. The Greek captures the relational dimension built into the word: the apostle is sent by someone, from someone, on behalf of someone, with the authority of someone. The apostle’s identity is constituted by the relationship to the sender. The apostle does not act on his own initiative; the apostle acts on the authority of the one who sent him. To receive the apostle is to receive the one who sent him; to reject the apostle is to reject the sender (Matthew 10:40).

The Greek classical and Hellenistic usage of apostolos covered both military and political senses. An apostolos could be the commander of a naval expedition (a fleet sent out) or a delegate sent with specific authority. The word had legal and commercial uses as well. What unified the various uses was the structural relationship: someone authorized to act on behalf of someone else.

The word family is substantial:

Stellō (στέλλω) — to send, to set in motion. The base verb. Relatively rare in the New Testament in this simple form.

Apostellō (ἀποστέλλω) — to send forth, to send out. The compound verb. Used 132 times in the New Testament for various forms of authoritative sending. Used of God sending the Son (John 3:17, 17:18), Christ sending the Spirit (Luke 24:49), Christ sending the apostles (John 20:21), the church sending workers (Acts 13:3), various human sendings.

Exapostellō (ἐξαποστέλλω) — to send out, to send forth (intensified). Used for Christ being sent by the Father (Galatians 4:4 — “God sent forth his Son”), the Spirit being sent (Galatians 4:6), the apostles being sent on mission (Acts 9:30, 11:22).

Apostolos (ἀπόστολος) — apostle, one sent. The chapter’s main word.

Apostolē (ἀποστολή) — apostleship, the office or function of being an apostle. Used at Acts 1:25 (the office of apostleship Matthias is selected to take), Romans 1:5 (Paul’s grace and apostleship received), 1 Corinthians 9:2, Galatians 2:8 (Paul’s apostleship recognized).

A related verb worth distinguishing:

Pempō (πέμπω) — to send. The other major Greek verb for sending. From a different root than stellō. The two verbs overlap semantically but with some accent differences. Apostellō tends to emphasize the authoritative commission and the relationship to the sender; pempō tends to be more general. Both are used in the Gospel of John for Christ being sent by the Father, sometimes interchangeably. The fact that the noun apostolos derives from apostellō rather than pempō is theologically significant — the apostle is named by the authoritative-commission word, not the general sending word.

The Septuagint background of apostolos and apostellō is moderate. The verb apostellō translates Hebrew shalach (שָׁלַח — to send) several hundred times in the LXX. The Hebrew tradition’s sending vocabulary covers the full range of authoritative sendings — God sending prophets, kings sending messengers, fathers sending sons, masters sending servants. The Hebrew concept of the shaliach (שָׁלִיחַ) — the one sent — develops in later rabbinic Judaism into a specific legal-religious category: the shaliach of a man is as the man himself; the authorized agent carries the authority of the sender. This rabbinic concept lies behind the New Testament’s apostolos.

Several Old Testament passages illuminate the New Testament development:

Isaiah 6:8 — “And I heard the voice of the Lord saying, ‘Whom shall I send (eshlach, LXX aposteilō), and who will go for us?’ Then I said, ‘Here I am! Send me (shelacheni).’” Isaiah’s commissioning. The Hebrew tradition of God sending prophets to His people, with the sent one bearing God’s authority and message.

Jeremiah 1:7 — “Do not say, ‘I am only a youth’; for to all to whom I send you, you shall go, and whatever I command you, you shall speak.” The prophetic commissioning pattern. The sent one speaks what the sender has commanded.

Exodus 3:10 — “Come, I will send you (ve’eshlachacha) to Pharaoh that you may bring my people, the children of Israel, out of Egypt.” Moses’s commissioning. The foundational Old Testament sending — Moses sent to deliver God’s people.

Malachi 3:1 — “Behold, I send my messenger (malachi), and he will prepare the way before me.” The promise of the messenger God will send. Christ identifies John the Baptist as this messenger (Matthew 11:10).

The Old Testament’s pattern is consistent. God sends His representatives — prophets, deliverers, messengers — who carry His authority and speak His word. The sent ones are not autonomous; they speak what they have been commissioned to speak. The receiving of the sent one is the receiving of the One who sent him; the rejecting of the sent one is the rejecting of the Sender.

The New Testament’s apostolos doctrine inherits this whole tradition and develops it Christologically. Christ Himself is the supreme One Sent — the Apostle of the Father (Hebrews 3:1). The apostles are those whom Christ sends, who carry Christ’s authority just as Christ carried the Father’s. The structural pattern of authoritative sending becomes the church’s foundation.

Range of Meaning

Apostolos in the New Testament covers a meaningful range, though more narrowly than some related Greek words:

The Twelve appointed by Christ during His earthly ministry. Matthew 10:1-5, Mark 3:13-19, Luke 6:12-16. The foundational use. Twelve men chosen, named, formed, and commissioned by Christ. After Judas’s defection and death, Matthias replaces him (Acts 1:21-26) to preserve the number twelve.

Paul as the apostle to the Gentiles. The special case. Paul’s apostleship rests on his Damascus road encounter with the risen Christ (Acts 9:1-19), recognized by the other apostles (Galatians 2:1-10), and grounded in his having seen the Lord (1 Corinthians 9:1, 15:8). Paul calls himself an apostle dozens of times in his letters; the early church received this self-designation.

A few other figures in the broader sense. Barnabas (Acts 14:14), James the brother of the Lord (Galatians 1:19), Andronicus and Junia (Romans 16:7 — the Greek is ambiguous on whether they are themselves apostles or well-known to the apostles).

“Apostles of the churches” — sent representatives. 2 Corinthians 8:23 — “they are messengers (apostoloi) of the churches, the glory of Christ.” A broader use for sent representatives of the Christian communities, distinct from the foundational apostolic office.

False apostles. 2 Corinthians 11:13 — “such men are false apostles, deceitful workmen, disguising themselves as apostles of Christ.” The category of those who claim apostleship without legitimate basis. The early church recognized that the title was already being misused in apostolic times.

Christ Himself as the supreme Apostle. Hebrews 3:1 — “Therefore, holy brothers, you who share in a heavenly calling, consider Jesus, the apostle and high priest of our confession.” The use that grounds all other apostleship. Christ is the One Sent by the Father, from whom all subsequent sending derives.

The narrow range of legitimate New Testament use is theologically significant. The word is not used in the New Testament for ordinary Christian missionaries, evangelists, or church planters. The Twelve, Paul, and a few specifically named individuals comprise the legitimate apostolic group. The broader category of “apostles of the churches” exists but is functionally distinct from the foundational apostolic office.

Where You’ll Meet It

Matthew 10:1-5 / Mark 3:13-19 / Luke 6:12-16 (the appointment of the Twelve). “And he called to him his twelve disciples and gave them authority over unclean spirits, to cast them out, and to heal every disease and every affliction. The names of the twelve apostles are these: first, Simon, who is called Peter, and Andrew his brother; James the son of Zebedee, and John his brother; Philip and Bartholomew; Thomas and Matthew the tax collector; James the son of Alphaeus, and Thaddaeus; Simon the Zealot, and Judas Iscariot, who betrayed him” (Matthew 10:1-4). The Greek of verse 2: tōn de dōdeka apostolōn ta onomata estin tauta.

The three Synoptic accounts together establish the foundational pattern. Several observations matter.

First, the appointment is by Christ Himself. The Twelve are not self-appointed; they did not volunteer for the role. Mark 3:14 — “He appointed twelve (whom he also named apostles).” Luke 6:13 — “He called his disciples and chose from them twelve, whom he named apostles.” Christ Himself names them. The apostolic office is constituted by Christ’s authoritative designation.

Second, the appointment is from the larger group of disciples. The disciples were many; the apostles were twelve. The narrowing is intentional. The Master had many mathētai; from among them He chose the twelve who would become apostoloi. The pattern establishes that not all disciples become apostles; the apostolic office is a specific commission given to specific individuals.

Third, the appointment includes authority. Matthew 10:1 — “he gave them authority over unclean spirits, to cast them out, and to heal every disease and every affliction.” The apostles are not just sent; the apostles are sent with authority. Their commission carries the authority of the One who sent them.

Fourth, the appointment includes mission. The apostles are sent to do specific work — to proclaim the kingdom, to heal, to cast out demons (Matthew 10:7-8). The sending is purposive; the apostles are sent to accomplish particular tasks within the broader unfolding of God’s redemptive purposes.

The Lutheran tradition has held this appointment pattern with substantial weight. The apostles are not the church’s representatives chosen by the church; the apostles are Christ’s representatives chosen by Christ. The church does not produce or authorize apostles; the church receives the apostolic foundation Christ has laid through the Twelve.

Acts 1:21-26 (the selection of Matthias). “So one of the men who have accompanied us during all the time that the Lord Jesus went in and out among us, beginning from the baptism of John until the day when he was taken up from us — one of these men must become with us a witness to his resurrection.” The Greek of verse 22: martyra tēs anastaseōs autou syn hēmin genesthai hena toutōn.

The passage establishes the qualifications for the apostolic office. Several observations matter.

First, the qualifications are restrictive. Two specific requirements: (a) accompanied Christ throughout His earthly ministry, from John’s baptism through the ascension; (b) a witness to His resurrection. The qualifications limit apostolic eligibility to those who were with Christ throughout His earthly life and were eyewitnesses of His resurrection. Most Christians of any generation, including the early church, could not meet these qualifications.

Second, the qualifications are historical. The requirements are not character or gifting requirements (though those mattered); the requirements are historical — specific experiences of having been with Christ during specific times. This restricts the apostolic office to a particular generation. Subsequent generations cannot meet the qualifications because the historical experiences are not available to them.

Third, the witness to the resurrection is foundational. Martyra tēs anastaseōs — “a witness to the resurrection.” The apostolic office is fundamentally tied to the resurrection. The apostles are those who saw the risen Christ; their proclamation of Him rests on their having seen Him. The church’s foundation is the eyewitness testimony to the resurrection that the apostles provide.

The Lutheran tradition has read these qualifications carefully. The apostolic office, in its strict New Testament sense, was constituted by historical conditions that no longer obtain. The age of the apostles closed with the deaths of the original Twelve and Paul. Subsequent church leaders — bishops, pastors, missionaries — are stewards of the apostolic teaching but are not themselves apostles. The apostolic foundation was laid once and remains as the foundation; subsequent ministry builds on what the apostles laid down, not as additions to the foundation but as construction on it.

Ephesians 2:19-20. “So then you are no longer strangers and aliens, but you are fellow citizens with the saints and members of the household of God, built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Christ Jesus himself being the cornerstone.” The Greek of verse 20: epoikodomēthentes epi tō themeliō tōn apostolōn kai prophētōn.

The verse establishes the foundational role of the apostolic office in the structure of the church. Several observations matter.

First, the church is built on the foundation. The Greek verb epoikodomeō — “to build upon” — establishes the architectural metaphor. The church is a building; the foundation is the apostles and prophets; Christ Himself is the cornerstone. The structure of the building rests on what was laid down at the beginning.

Second, the foundation is one-time. A building’s foundation is laid once. Subsequent construction proceeds upon what was laid, not by laying additional foundation. The apostolic foundation, having been laid, does not require re-laying or extension. The apostolic teaching (now contained in the New Testament canon) is the church’s foundation across all generations.

Third, the prophets are included alongside the apostles. The reference is likely to New Testament prophets (gifted individuals who spoke God’s word in the earliest church) rather than only to Old Testament prophets, though both are part of the church’s broader prophetic heritage. The prophetic gift was operative in the earliest church alongside the apostolic; both have continued through the inspired writings rather than through ongoing offices in the same form.

The Lutheran tradition has held this passage as one of the foundational ecclesiological texts. The church rests on the apostolic foundation. The apostolic teaching, preserved in Scripture, is the standard against which all subsequent teaching is measured. The church is not free to abandon the apostolic foundation in favor of contemporary religious innovation; the church is committed to building on what the apostles laid.

John 20:21-23. “Jesus said to them again, ‘Peace be with you. As the Father has sent me, even so I am sending you.’ And when he had said this, he breathed on them and said to them, ‘Receive the Holy Spirit. If you forgive the sins of any, they are forgiven them; if you withhold forgiveness from any, it is withheld.’” The Greek of verse 21: kathōs apestalken me ho patēr, kagō pempō hymas.

The passage gives the post-resurrection commissioning of the apostles. Several observations matter.

First, the structural parallel between Christ’s sending by the Father and Christ’s sending of the apostles. Kathōs apestalken me ho patēr, kagō pempō hymas — “As the Father has sent me, even so I am sending you.” The apostolic mission flows from and parallels Christ’s own mission. The pattern of authoritative sending continues from Father to Son to apostles.

Second, the Holy Spirit is given. Labete pneuma hagion — “Receive the Holy Spirit.” The apostolic commission is not just a human task; the apostles are equipped by the Spirit’s giving. The Spirit who descended on Christ at His baptism is now given to the apostles for their commissioned work.

Third, the office of the keys. The forgiveness and retention of sins is committed to the apostles. The Lutheran tradition has read this passage carefully in connection with the office of pastoral ministry (developed in Matthew 16:19, 18:18). The authority to declare forgiveness on the basis of Christ’s work was given to the apostles and continues in the pastoral office that derives from the apostolic foundation.

Note: the verb here changes from apostellō (Father sending Son) to pempō (Christ sending apostles). Some commentators have made theological hay from this verbal shift, but most scholars read it as stylistic variation rather than as a substantive theological distinction.

Hebrews 3:1. “Therefore, holy brothers, you who share in a heavenly calling, consider Jesus, the apostle and high priest of our confession.” The Greek: katanoēsate ton apostolon kai archierea tēs homologias hēmōn Iēsoun.

The verse identifies Christ Himself as the supreme Apostle. The two titles are paired: apostle and high priest. The apostle dimension names Christ as the One Sent by the Father; the high priest dimension names Christ as the One who represents the people before God. The combination is theologically substantial — Christ comes from God and goes to God on behalf of the people.

Two observations matter.

First, Christ as apostle is the ground of all other apostleship. The apostles are sent by Christ; Christ is sent by the Father. The structural pattern of sending originates in the Trinity and extends through the apostles to the church.

Second, the apostle/high priest pairing connects to the church’s worship. Christ as apostle brings God’s word to the people; Christ as high priest brings the people’s prayers and worship to God. Both directions of the relationship are accomplished by the same Christ. The Lutheran tradition has held this carefully in its theology of the Lord’s Supper — Christ is both the One who comes to the people in the Sacrament (the apostle dimension) and the One who presents the people to the Father (the high priest dimension).